There is a large variety of organisms, both unicellular and multicellular, in the animal kingdom.
In unicellular organisms, all functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction are performed by a single cell.
In multicellular animals, these functions are carried out by different groups of cells in a well organised manner.
The body of a simple organism like Hydra is made of different types of cells and the number of cells in each type can be in thousands. The human body is composed of billions of cells to perform various functions.
In multicellular animals, a group of similar cells alongwith intercellular substances perform a specific function. Such a group of cells is called tissue.
All complex animals consist of only four basic types of tissues. These tissues are organised in specific proportion and pattern to form an organ like stomach, lung, heart and kidney.
When two or more organs perform a common function by their physical and/or chemical interaction, they together form organ system, e.g., digestive system, respiratory system, etc.
Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems split up the work in a way that exhibits division of labour and contribute to the survival of the body as a whole.
7.1 ORGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEM
The basic tissues organise to form organs which in turn associate to form organ systems in the multicellular organisms. Such an organisation is essential for more efficient and better coordinated activities of millions of cells constituting an organism.
Each organ in our body is made of one or more type of tissues. For example, our heart consists of all the four types of tissues, i.e., epithelial, connective, muscular and neural.
The complexity in organ and organ systems displays certain discernable (recognisable) trend. This discernable trend is called evolutionary trend. This chapter introduces to morphology and anatomy of frog.
Morphology refers to study of form or externally visible features. In the case of plants or microbes, the term morphology precisely means only this. In case of animals this refers to the external appearance of the organs or parts of the body. The word anatomy conventionally is used for the study of morphology of internal organs in the animals. You will learn the morphology and anatomy of frog representing vertebrates.
7.2 FROGS
Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater and belong to class Amphibia of phylum Chordata.
The most common species of frog found in India is Rana tigrina.
They do not have constant body temperature i.e., their body temperature varies with the temperature of the environment. Such animals are called cold blooded or poikilotherms.
The colour of the frogs changes while they are in grasses and on dry land. They have the ability to change the colour to hide them from their enemies (camouflage). This protective coloration is called mimicry.
Frogs are not seen during peak summer and winter. During this period they take shelter in deep burrows to protect them from extreme heat and cold. This is known as summer sleep (aestivation) and winter sleep (hibernation) respectively.
7.2.1 Morphology
The skin of frog is smooth and slippery due to the presence of mucus. The skin is always maintained in a moist condition.
The colour of dorsal side of body is generally olive green with dark irregular spots. On the ventral side the skin is uniformly pale yellow.
The frog never drinks water but absorb it through the skin.
Body of frog
Body of a frog is divisible into head and trunk (Figure 7.1).
A neck and tail are absent.
Eyes are bulged and covered by a nictitating membrane that protects them while in water.
On either side of eyes a membranous tympanum (ear) receives sound signals.
The forelimbs and hind limbs help in swimming, walking, leaping and burrowing.
The hind limbs end in five digits and they are larger and muscular than forelimbs that end in four digits.
Feet have webbed digits that help in swimming.
Frogs exhibit sexual dimorphism (differences in appearance between males and females of the same species). Male frogs can be distinguished by the presence of sound producing vocal sacs and also a copulatory/ nuptial pad on the first digit of the fore limbs which are absent in female frogs. This pad helps the male frog to hold the female frog tightly underneath its body during copulation.
7.2.2 Anatomy
The body cavity of frogs accommodate different organ systems such as digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous, excretory and reproductive systems with well developed structures and functions (Figure 7.2).
Digestive System
It consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
The alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivores (eats the meat of other animals) and hence the length of intestine is reduced.
Carnivores have shorter small intestine, as compared to herbivores. Carnivores consume only flesh of other animals whereas herbivores consume plant products, which contain cellulose and fibre. Meat is a complex food and relatively hard to digest so takes more energy and time to digest. Hence they are not completely digested by body. Cellulose and other plant products take longer to be digested as they are completely digested. Hence, carnivores possess shorter small intestine.
The mouth opens into the buccal cavity that leads to the oesophagus through pharynx.
Oesophagus is a short tube that opens into the stomach which in turn continues as the intestine, rectum and finally opens outside by the cloaca.
Liver secretes bile that is stored in the gall bladder.
Pancreas, a digestive gland produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes.
Food is captured by the bilobed tongue.
Digestion of food takes place by the action of HCl and gastric juices secreted from the walls of the stomach. Partially digested food called chyme is passed from stomach to the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum.
The duodenum receives bile from gall bladder and pancreatic juices from the pancreas through a common bile duct. Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices digest carbohydrates and proteins.
Final digestion takes place in the intestine.
Digested food is absorbed by the numerous finger-like folds in the inner wall of intestine called villi and microvilli.
The undigested solid waste moves into the rectum and passes out through cloaca.
Respiratory System
Frogs respire on land and in the water by two different methods.
In water, skin acts as aquatic respiratory organ (cutaneous respiration). Dissolved oxygen in the water is exchanged through the skin by diffusion.
On land, the buccal cavity, skin and lungs act as the respiratory organs. The respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration.
The lungs are a pair of elongated, pink coloured sac-like structures present in the upper part of the trunk region (thorax).
Air enters through the nostrils into the buccal cavity and then to lungs.
During aestivation and hibernation gaseous exchange takes place through skin.
Circulatory System
The vascular system of frog is well-developed closed type.
Frogs have a lymphatic system also.
The blood vascular system involves heart, blood vessels and blood. The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph channels and lymph nodes.
Heart is a muscular structure situated in the upper part of the body cavity. It has three chambers, two atria and one ventricle and is covered by a membrane called pericardium.
A triangular structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium. It receives blood through the major veins called vena cava.
The ventricle opens into a saclike conus arteriosus on the ventral side of the heart.
The blood from the heart is carried to all parts of the body by the arteries (arterial system).
The veins collect blood from different parts of body to the heart and form the venous system.
Special venous connection between liver and intestine as well as the kidney and lower parts of the body are present in frogs. The former is called hepatic portal system and the latter is called renal portal system.
The blood is composed of plasma and cells. The blood cells are RBC (red blood cells) or erythrocytes, WBC (white blood cells) or leucocytes and platelets. RBC’s are nucleated and contain red coloured pigment namely haemoglobin.
The lymph is different from blood. It lacks few proteins and RBCs.
The blood carries nutrients, gases and water to the respective sites during the circulation. The circulation of blood is achieved by the pumping action of the muscular heart.
Excretory System
It eliminates the nitrogenous wastes from body.
It consists of a pair of kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder.
Kidneys are compact, dark red and bean shaped structures situated a little posteriorly in the body cavity on both sides of vertebral column.
Testis is located on upper anterio-lateral side of each kidney.
Each kidney is composed of several structural and functional units called uriniferous tubules or nephrons.
Two ureters emerge from the kidneys in the male frogs and opens into the cloaca. These act as urinogenital ducts. In females the ureters and oviduct open seperately in the cloaca.
neural system and endocrine glands
The thin-walled urinary bladder is present ventral to the rectum which also opens in the cloaca.
The frog excretes urea and thus is a ureotelic animal.
Excretory wastes are carried by blood into the kidney where it is separated and excreted.
Control and Coordination System
It is highly evolved in the frog. It includes both neural system and endocrine glands.
The chemical coordination of various organs of the body is achieved by hormones which are secreted by the endocrine glands.
The prominent endocrine glands found in frog are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal body, pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads.
The nervous system is organised into a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), a peripheral nervous system (cranial and spinal nerves) and an autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic).
There are ten pairs of cranial nerves arising from the brain.
Brain is enclosed in a bony structure called brain box (cranium).
The brain is divided into fore-brain, mid-brain and hind-brain.
Forebrain includes olfactory lobes, paired cerebral hemispheres and unpaired diencephalon.
The midbrain is characterised by a pair of optic lobes.
Hind-brain consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata passes out through the foramen magnum and continues into spinal cord, which is enclosed in the vertebral column.
Frog has different types of sense organs, namely organs of touch (sensory papillae), taste (taste buds), smell (nasal epithelium), vision (eyes) and hearing (tympanum with internal ears).
Out of these, eyes and internal ears are well-organised structures and the rest are cellular aggregations around nerve endings.
Eyes in a frog are a pair of spherical structures situated in the orbit in skull. These are simple eyes (possessing only one lense in each eye; compound eyes contains several lenses (around 2000) in each eye).
External ear is absent in frogs and only tympanum can be seen externally. The ear is an organ of hearing as well as balancing (equilibrium).
Reproductive Systems
Frogs have well organised male and female reproductive systems.
Male reproductive organs consist of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes (Figure 7.3), which are found adhered to the upper part of kidneys by a double fold of peritoneum called mesorchium.
Vasa efferentia are 10-12 in number that arise from testes. They enter the kidneys on their side and open into Bidder’s canal. Finally it communicates with the urinogenital duct that comes out of the kidneys and opens into the cloaca.
The cloaca is a small, median chamber that is used to pass faecal matter, urine and sperms to the exterior.
The female reproductive organs include a pair of ovaries (Figure 7.4). The ovaries are situated near kidneys and there is no functional connection with kidneys. A pair of oviduct arising from the ovaries opens into the cloaca separately.
A mature female can lay 2500 to 3000 ova at a time.
Fertilisation is external and takes place in water.
Development involves a larval stage called tadpole. Tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to form the adult.
Frogs are beneficial for mankind because they eat insects and protect the crop. Frogs maintain ecological balance because these serve as an important link of food chain and food web in the ecosystem. In some countries the muscular legs of frog are used as food by man.
No comments:
Post a Comment